Programmed Instruction

 Programmed Instruction

Programmed Instruction is a self-instructional teaching method in which learning material is presented in small, logically sequenced steps (called frames). The learner reads each step, responds to a question or task, and immediately receives feedback before moving to the next step.

It is based on the principles of behaviorism and reinforcement, where learning is strengthened through immediate feedback.

Definition

Programmed instruction is a systematic method of teaching in which the learner is guided through a sequence of small steps with immediate feedback and self-paced progress.

Key Features / Characteristics

1. Content is broken into small units (frames)

2. Learner actively responds at each step

3. Immediate feedback is provided

4. Learning is self-paced

5. Learner progresses only after correct response

6. Objectives are clearly stated

7. It supports individual learning

Types of Programmed Instruction

1. Linear Programming (Skinner)

• All learners follow the same path.

• Each learner moves step-by-step in a fixed sequence.

2. Branching Programming (Crowder)

• Learners move to different paths based on their responses.

• Wrong answers lead to remedial frames.

Scope / Uses

• Distance and online learning

• Remedial teaching

• Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)

• Skill learning and drill practice

• Teacher education and training

Advantages

• Individualized and self-paced

• Immediate feedback

• Reduces teacher dependency

• Suitable for large and diverse groups

Limitations

• Time-consuming to design

• Limited scope for creativity and discussion

• Focuses mainly on factual and skill-based learning

 

Linear Programming in Programmed Instruction

Linear programming is a type of programmed instruction developed by B.F. Skinner based on the principles of behaviorism and operant conditioning. In this method, all learners proceed through the same sequence of learning steps in a fixed, linear order.

It emphasizes active learner response, immediate reinforcement, and self-paced learning.

Linear programming is a form of programmed instruction in which:

• The learning material is broken into small steps called frames.

• Each learner responds to each frame.

• The learner receives immediate feedback.

• All learners follow the same learning path regardless of their responses.

Definition

Linear programming is a programmed learning approach in which all learners move through the same sequence of frames step by step, receiving immediate feedback at each stage

Characteristics of Linear Programming

1. Fixed sequence of frames

2. Small step presentation of content

3. Active learner response is required

4. Immediate feedback is given

5. Self-paced learning

6. Same learning path for all learners

7. Emphasis on reinforcement

8. Suitable for factual and skill learning

Linear Programming is Called Extrinsic Programming and Straight-Line Programming

Linear programming is a type of programmed instruction developed by B.F. Skinner. In this method, all learners follow the same fixed sequence of learning steps (frames), regardless of their responses. Because of its structure and control mechanism, linear programming is also known as extrinsic programming and straight-line programming.

Why It Is Called Extrinsic Programming

The term extrinsic means "from outside".

Linear programming is called extrinsic programming because:

• The entire learning path is pre-determined by the programmer (teacher or instructional designer).

• The learner has no control over the sequence or direction of learning.

• Reinforcement, feedback, and progression are externally controlled.

Thus, the learning is guided by external control rather than learner choice, making it extrinsic.

Why It Is Called Straight-Line Programming

Linear programming is called straight-line programming because:

• The learner moves through frames in a single, fixed, linear path.

• There are no branches, diversions, or alternate routes.

• Every learner follows the same straight sequence from start to finish.

Hence, it is called straight-line because the instructional path is like a straight line with no deviations.

Structure of Linear Programming

Each frame consists of:

• A small piece of information

• A question or blank for learner response

• Feedback or correct answer

Steps in Designing Linear Programming

1. Identify learning objectives

2. Analyze content and break it into small units

3. Arrange frames in logical sequence

4. Design responses for each frame

5. Provide immediate feedback

6. Pilot test and revise the programme

Structure of a Frame in Linear Programming

In linear programming, each frame typically contains all three elements together:

1. Learning Material / Information – A small, clear piece of knowledge or concept (1–2 sentences)

2. Question / Response Requirement – A question, blank, or task for the learner based on the learning material

3. Immediate Feedback / Answer – Correct answer or confirmation, often placed right after the learner’s response

So in linear programming, the answer is usually in the same frame, immediately after the question.

Example Frame

Learning Material:
“The lowest layer of the atmosphere supports life and weather changes.”

Question / Response:
“The lowest layer is called the __________.”

Answer / Feedback:
“Correct answer: Troposphere ✔ Well done!”

✅ Notice: All three — material, question, answer — are together in one frame.

Why Answers Are in the Same Frame

• Immediate reinforcement: Learner knows right away if they are correct.

• Self-paced mastery: Learner can’t move ahead without confirming understanding.

• Simplicity: Keeps learning linear and straightforward.

• Characteristic of “Linear / Straight-Line Programming”: No branching, no delay in feedback.

Key Features Shown in the Diagram:

1. Learning Material (Yellow box) – Gives a small piece of information.

2. Question / Response (Green box) – Asks the learner to fill in or respond.

3. Answer / Feedback (Orange box) – Provides immediate reinforcement.

4. Arrows – Show the straight-line sequence from one step to the next.

Linear Programming Model

Topic: Layers of the Atmosphere

Subject: Geography (Social Science)
Class: VIII
Strategy: Programmed Instruction – Linear Programming

Objectives

After completing the programme, the learner will be able to:

• Define atmosphere

• Identify the layers of the atmosphere

• Explain the features of each layer

• Arrange the layers in correct order

Instructions to Learner

Read each frame carefully. Write the answer. Check with feedback. If correct, proceed.

Programmed Frames

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Frame 1

Information: The Earth is surrounded by a thick blanket of air that protects life and helps regulate temperature.
Response: This blanket of air is called the __________.
Answer: Atmosphere
Feedback: Correct.

Frame 2

Information: The atmosphere contains gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapour.
Response: Name one major gas present in the atmosphere: __________.
Answer: Nitrogen / Oxygen
Feedback: Correct.

Frame 3

Information: Scientists divide the atmosphere into layers based on changes in temperature and height.
Response: The atmosphere is divided into different __________.
Answer: Layers
Feedback: Correct.

Frame 4

Information: The lowest layer of the atmosphere is closest to the Earth’s surface and supports life.
Response: The lowest layer is called the __________.
Answer: Troposphere
Feedback: Correct.

Frame 5

Information: All weather phenomena like rain, clouds, wind, and storms occur in the troposphere.
Response: Weather changes occur in the __________.
Answer: Troposphere
Feedback: Correct.

Frame 6

Information: Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere, which is calm and stable.
Response: The layer above the troposphere is the __________.
Answer: Stratosphere
Feedback: Correct.

Frame 7

Information: The ozone layer, which protects us from harmful ultraviolet rays, is found in the stratosphere.
Response: The ozone layer is found in the __________.
Answer: Stratosphere
Feedback: Correct.

Frame 8

Information: Above the stratosphere lies the mesosphere, where temperatures fall sharply.
Response: The layer above the stratosphere is the __________.
Answer: Mesosphere
Feedback: Correct.

Frame 9

Information: The mesosphere is the coldest layer of the atmosphere.
Response: The coldest atmospheric layer is the __________.
Answer: Mesosphere
Feedback: Correct.

Frame 10

Information: The thermosphere is a very hot layer where auroras occur and satellites orbit.
Response: The layer where auroras occur is the __________.
Answer: Thermosphere
Feedback: Correct.

Advantages

• Individualized and self-paced learning

• Immediate feedback enhances retention

• Suitable for distance education

• Reduces teacher dependency

• Ensures mastery learning

Limitations

• Does not cater to individual differences well

• Little scope for creativity and higher-order thinking

• Time-consuming to prepare

• Learning becomes mechanical if poorly designed

Scope / Uses

• Distance education and online learning

• Remedial teaching

• Drill and practice sessions

• Skill training

• Computer-assisted instruction

Linear programming is a structured, behaviorist-based teaching strategy that ensures systematic learning through small steps and immediate feedback. Though it has limitations in promoting creativity, it remains useful for foundational learning and skill development.

Branched Programming (Programmed Instruction)

Branched Programming is a type of programmed instruction in which learners are guided along different paths based on their responses.

• If the learner answers a question correctly, they move to the next concept.

• If the learner answers incorrectly, they are directed to remedial or alternative frames to correct their understanding.

It is adaptive and allows for individual differences.

Branched Programming was developed by Norman Crowder in the 1950s.

• He introduced it as an improvement over linear programming (developed by B.F. Skinner) to cater to individual differences in learners.

• Crowder’s model is sometimes called the Crowder Method of Programmed Instruction.

Key points about Crowder’s Branched Programming:

1. Uses multiple-choice questions or frames.

2. Each response directs the learner to either the next concept or a remedial path.

3. Designed to achieve mastery learning by giving immediate corrective feedback.

Definition

Branched programming is a self-instructional method in which learners follow different learning paths depending on their responses, providing immediate feedback and remedial instruction when necessary.

 

Characteristics

1. Multiple Learning Paths: The program is not linear; it has branches.

2. Adaptive Learning: Learners proceed according to their responses.

3. Immediate Feedback: Correct or incorrect responses lead to immediate guidance.

4. Remedial Frames: Incorrect responses take the learner to corrective instruction.

5. Self-Paced: Learners progress at their own speed.

6. Mastery-Oriented: Ensures understanding before moving ahead.

7. Interactive: Learner actively participates in decision-making.

Significance / Importance

• Supports individual differences in learning ability.

• Reduces learner frustration by providing remedial instruction.

• Enhances learning mastery and retention.

• Encourages active learning and self-evaluation.

• Useful in distance education, computer-assisted instruction, and skill learning.

Why It Is Called Intrinsic Programming

Branched programming is called intrinsic programming because:

• The learner’s response (intrinsic choice) determines the learning path.

• Learning depends on learner’s input, unlike Linear Programming, where progression is externally controlled.

• Reinforcement is learner-centered, not just program-centered.

Comparative Chart: Linear vs Branched Programming

Feature	Linear Programming	Branched Programming
Path	Single, fixed sequence	Multiple paths based on responses
Control	Externally controlled (extrinsic)	Learner-controlled (intrinsic)
Feedback	Immediate, same for all	Immediate, may lead to remedial frames
Learner Adaptation	Does not adapt to learner	Adapts to individual learner responses
Remedial Instruction	Not provided	Provided for incorrect responses
Complexity	Simple to design	More complex, requires careful planning
Example Use	Basic factual learning	Skill mastery, problem-solving

Branched programming is a flexible, adaptive, learner-centered programmed instruction. It allows learners to follow paths based on their responses, ensures mastery, provides remedial support, and encourages active participation. It complements linear programming by catering to individual differences.

Branched programming is an intrinsic programmed instruction method in which learners proceed along different paths according to their responses. It provides immediate feedback, remedial instruction, and ensures mastery learning, making it learner-centered and adaptive.

Branched Programming Model

Topic: Layers of the Atmosphere

Subject: Geography (Social Science)
Class: VIII
Instructional Strategy: Branched Programming – Crowder Method

Objectives

After completing the programme, the learner will be able to:

1. Define atmosphere.

2. Identify and describe the layers of the atmosphere.

3. Understand features of each layer.

4. Arrange the layers in correct order.

Instructions to Learner

• Read each frame carefully.

• Respond to the question.

• Follow the path according to the feedback: correct → next frame, incorrect → remedial frame.

• Learning is self-paced.

Programmed Frames (Branched)

Frame 1 – Introduction

Learning Material:
“The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air called the atmosphere. It protects life and helps regulate temperature.”

Question:
“What is the blanket of air surrounding the Earth called?”

Options:
a) Hydrosphere
b) Lithosphere
c) Atmosphere

Correct Response (c): Proceed to Frame 2
Incorrect Response (a/b): Go to Remedial Frame R1

Remedial Frame R1

Learning Material:
“The atmosphere is the layer of gases around the Earth. It is different from the water layer (hydrosphere) and the solid Earth layer (lithosphere).”

Question:
“What is the layer of air surrounding the Earth called?”
Answer: Atmosphere → Return to Frame 2

Frame 2 – Troposphere

Learning Material:
“The lowest layer of the atmosphere is the troposphere. All weather phenomena like clouds, rain, and wind occur here.”

Question:
“Which is the lowest layer where weather occurs?”

Options:
a) Troposphere
b) Stratosphere
c) Mesosphere

Correct Response (a): Proceed to Frame 3
Incorrect Response (b/c): Go to Remedial Frame R2

Remedial Frame R2

Learning Material:
“The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, extending up to 8–15 km from Earth’s surface. Weather events happen here.”

Question:
“Which is the lowest layer where weather occurs?”
Answer: Troposphere → Return to Frame 3

Frame 3 – Stratosphere

Learning Material:
“The stratosphere lies above the troposphere. It contains the ozone layer which protects Earth from ultraviolet rays.”

Question:
“In which layer is the ozone layer found?”

Options:
a) Mesosphere
b) Stratosphere
c) Thermosphere

Correct Response (b): Proceed to Frame 4
Incorrect Response (a/c): Go to Remedial Frame R3

Remedial Frame R3

Learning Material:
“The stratosphere is above the troposphere. It is calm and stable. The ozone layer, which absorbs harmful UV rays, is found here.”

Question:
“In which layer is the ozone layer located?”
Answer: Stratosphere → Return to Frame 4

Frame 4 – Mesosphere

Learning Material:
“The mesosphere is the layer above the stratosphere. It is the coldest layer of the atmosphere.”

Question:
“Which layer is the coldest layer of the atmosphere?”

Options:
a) Mesosphere
b) Thermosphere
c) Exosphere

Correct Response (a): Proceed to Frame 5
Incorrect Response (b/c): Go to Remedial Frame R4

Key Features in the Diagram ☝

1. Learning Material – Short concept given at the top of each frame.

2. Question / Options – Learner is asked to respond.

3. Correct Path – Arrows in green lead to the next frame if the answer is correct.

4. Remedial Path – Arrows in red/orange lead to remedial frames if the answer is incorrect.

5. Evaluation Frame – At the end, learners arrange layers in order to consolidate learning.

Forward Branching vs Backward Branching in Branched Programming

Branched programming allows learners to move along different learning paths based on their responses. The branching can occur in two ways:

1. Forward Branching

2. Backward Branching

These terms describe how the program directs learners after an incorrect response.

Forward Branching

Definition:
Forward branching occurs when an incorrect response moves the learner forward to remedial material, then automatically brings them to the next concept or frame.

Key Points:

• Learners do not return to the original frame; they are progressed forward.

• Emphasis is on learning the next concept after remediation.

• Reduces repetition but may skip reviewing the same frame.

Example:

• Frame 2 Question: “Which is the lowest layer of the atmosphere?”

• Wrong answer → Forward branch to remedial frame explaining troposphere → After remedial explanation, move to Frame 3.

 Backward Branching

Definition:
Backward branching occurs when an incorrect response returns the learner to the previous frame or concept, so they relearn the original material before moving forward.

Key Points:

• Learners revisit the same concept until mastery is achieved.

• Emphasis is on mastery learning through repetition.

• Slower, but ensures strong understanding.

Example:

• Frame 2 Question: “Which is the lowest layer of the atmosphere?”

• Wrong answer → Backward branch to Frame 1 (or first part of Frame 2) → Learner re-studies material → Tries question again.

The Diagram Shows ☝

• Forward Branching (Left Side)

  • Wrong answer → Remedial frame → Moves forward to the next concept.

• Backward Branching (Right Side)

  • Wrong answer → Remedial frame → Learner returns to original frame and retries until correct.

• Arrows and color coding clearly show the sequence and branching path.

Comparative Table

Feature	Forward Branching	Backward Branching
Direction after wrong answer	Moves forward to remedial frame	Returns backward to previous frame
Focus	Progress with remediation	Mastery of original frame
Time Required	Less time	More time due to repetition
Learning Style	Efficient, sequential	Reinforcement-based, mastery-oriented
Example	Wrong → remedial explanation → next frame	Wrong → previous frame → retry question

Summary of Programmed Instruction Types

Feature	Linear Programming (Skinner)	Forward Branching (Crowder)	Backward Branching (Crowder)
Definition	Learners follow a single, fixed path.	Learners move along different paths based on responses; wrong answer → remedial → next frame.	Learners move along different paths based on responses; wrong answer → remedial → return to previous frame.
Also Called	Extrinsic / Straight-line programming	Intrinsic / Forward branching	Intrinsic / Backward branching
Learning Path	Single, fixed, same for all	Adaptive; proceeds forward after remediation	Adaptive; goes back to previous frame for mastery
Feedback	Immediate, same for all	Immediate, may include remedial → next frame	Immediate, remedial → repeat frame until correct
Learner Control	Minimal; externally controlled	Moderate; depends on learner’s response	High; depends on learner’s response and mastery
Remedial Instruction	Not included	Included after wrong response	Included after wrong response
Focus	Sequential learning	Progress + remediation	Mastery + reinforcement
Complexity	Simple to design	Moderate; requires branching	High; requires backward references
Example (Layers of Atmosphere)	Question: “Lowest layer?” → Answer: Troposphere → Next frame	Wrong answer → remedial frame explaining troposphere → next frame	Wrong answer → remedial frame explaining troposphere → return to original frame → retry question